Skip to main content

Research Repository

Advanced Search

An investigation into the diversity of genes of the innate immune system in the European Badger (Meles meles) and possible associations with trypanosome infection

Whiteoak, A

Authors

A Whiteoak



Abstract

Toll-like receptor (TLR) genes encode for conserved proteins of the innate immune system which trigger pathways in response to pathogen invasion by recognising molecules essential for endoparasite survival. An endoparasite lives within the host and relies upon the host for its nutrition, here we consider it a pathogen when its presence causes detriment to the host. A pathogen is broadly anything which causes disease; causing specific symptoms in a specific location – in this case the symptoms would be the innate immune response to the parasite at its location, which would inevitably divert host energies to the creation of innate immune molecules. TLR genetic variation is rare and small mutations, such as single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), can be correlated with enhanced disease resistance in some hosts. This research investigates TLR sequence diversity in European Badger (Meles meles) populations across the UK and possible associations with trypanosome infection. DNA from a collection of badgers from Woodchester Park, and other UK sites were available for investigation. As no badger TLR sequences were available or published, five PCR primer sets were successfully designed, using closely related species, to amplify the full badger TLR2 exon and exon 3 of TLR4. Sixty-one and fifty-nine badgers were sequenced across TLR2 and TLR4 (exon 3) respectively. Three TLR2 amino acid haplotype variants were found with two linked and one unlinked. No polymorphisms were found in the same badgers for TLR4. There was no significant relationship of polymorphism with trypanosome infection. Badgers ranging from St. Ives to Birmingham were found to be highly homogeneous with respect to TLR DNA sequence variation, and such low level variation was highly unusual in comparison to other TLR population studies.

Citation

Whiteoak, A. (in press). An investigation into the diversity of genes of the innate immune system in the European Badger (Meles meles) and possible associations with trypanosome infection. (Dissertation). University of Salford

Thesis Type Dissertation
Acceptance Date Jun 2, 2015
Deposit Date May 31, 2017
Publicly Available Date May 31, 2017
Additional Information References : Abrantes J., Areal H. and Esteves P. J. (2013) Insights into the European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) innate immune system: genetic diversity of the toll-like receptor 3 (TLR3) in wild populations and domestic breeds. BMC Genetics 14:73. Akira S. and Takeda K. (2004) Toll-Like Receptor Signalling. Immunology 4 499-513. Al-Orainey I. O. (2009). Diagnosis of latent tuberculosis: Can we do better? Annals of Thoracic Medicine. 4:1 5-9. Alagarasu K., Bachal R. V., Memane R. S., Shah P. S., Cecilia D. (2015) Polymorphisms in RNA sensing toll like receptor genes and its association with clinical outcomes of dengue virus infection. Immunobiology 220 164-168. Albright J. W. and Albright J. F. (1981) Differences in Resistance to Trypanosoma musculi Infection Among Strains of Inbred Mice. Infection and Immunity 33:2 364-371. Alexander J. and Russell D. G. (1992) The interaction of Leishmania species with macrophages. Advanced Parasitology 31: 175. Allen A. R., Minozzi G., Glass E. J., Skuce R. A., McDowell S. W. J., Woolliams J. A. and Bishop S. C. (2010) Bovine tuberculosis: the genetic basis of host susceptibility. Proceedings of the Royal Society B 10.1098. An H., Xu H., Yu Y., Zhang M., Qi R., Yan X., Liu S., Wang W., Guo Z., Qin Z., Cao X. (2002) Up-regulation of TLR9 gene expression by LPS in mouse macrophages via activation of NF-kB, ERK and p38 MAPK signal pathways. Immunology Letters 81 165-169. Annavi G., Newman C., Dugdale H. L., Buesching C. D., Sin Y. W., Burke T. and Macdonald D. W. (2014) Neighbouring-group composition and within-group relatedness drive extra-group paternity rate in the European badger (Meles meles). Journal of Evolutionary Biology. Andrews N. W. (1993) Living dangerously: how Trypanosoma cruzi uses lysosomes to get inside host cells, and then escapes into the cytoplasm. Biology Research 26 65-67. Anwar A., Knaggs J., Service K. M., McLaren G. W., Riordan P., Newman C., Delahay R. J., Cheeseman C., Macdonald D. W. (2006) Antibodies to Toxoplasma gondii in Eurasian Badgers. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 42:1 179-181. Apinjoh T. O., Anchang-Kimbi J. K., Njua-Yafi C., Mugri R. N., Ngwai A. N., Rockett K. A., Mbunwe E., Besingi R. N., Clark T. G., Kwiatkowski D. P. and Achidi E. A. (2013) Association of Cytokine and Toll-Like Receptor Gene Polymorphisms with Severe Malaria in Three Regions of Cameroon. PLoS ONE 8(11): e81071. Areal H., Abrantes J. and Esteves P. J. (2011) Signatures of positive selection in Toll-like receptor (TLR) genes in mammals. BMC Evolutionary Biology 11:368 1471-2148. Arnason U., Adegoke J. A., Bodin K., Borne E. W., Esa Y. B., Gullberg A., Nilsson M., Short R. V., Xu X., and Janke A. (2002) Mammalian mitogenomic relationships and the root of the eutherian tree. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 99:12 8151-8156. Austen J. M., Jefferies R., Friend J.A., Ryan U., Adams P. and Reid S. A. (2009) Morphological and molecular characterization of Trypanosoma copemani isolated from Gilbert’s potoroo (Potorous gilbertii) and quokka (Setonix brachyurus). Parasitology 136 783-792. Bagheri N., Azadegan-Dehkordi F., Sanei H., Taghikhani A., Rahimiand G., Salimzadeh L., Hashemzadeh-Chaleshtori M., Rafieian-kopaei M., Shirzad M. and Shirzad H. (2014) Associations of a TLR4 single-nucleotidepolymorphism with H. pylori associatedgastric diseases in iranian patients. Research in Hepatology and Gastroenterology 10:1016. Balseiro A., Rodríguez O., González-Quirós P., Merediz I., Sevilla I. A., Davé D.,Dalley D. J., Lesellier S., Chambers M. A., Bezos J., Muñoz M., Delahay R. J., Gortázar C. and Prieto J. M. (2011) Infection of Eurasian badgers (Meles meles) with Mycobacterium bovis and Mycobacterium avium complex in Spain. The Veterinary Journal 6 pages. Barkham P. (2013) Badgerlands: the twilight world of Britain's most enigmatic animal. Granta publications. 389 pages. Barreiro L. B. Marioni J. C., Blekhman R., Stephens M. and Gilad Y. (2010): Universal TLR response is more conserved than the immune responses to specific bacterial or viral infections. PLOS Genetics. 10.1371/journal.pgen.1001249.g002. Barreiro L. B., Ben-Ali M., Quach H., Laval G., Patin E., Pickrell J. K., Bouchier C., Tichit M., Neyrolles O., Gicquel B., Kidd J.R., Kidd K. K., Alcaïs A., Ragimbeau J., Pellegrini S., Abel S., Casanova J-L. and Quintana-Murci L. (2009) Evolutionary Dynamics of Human Toll-Like Receptors and Their Different Contributions to Host Defense. PLoS Genet 5(7): e1000562. Bartl S., Baish M., Weissman I. L. and Diaz M. (2003) Did the Molecules of Adaptive Immunity Evolve from the Innate Immune System? Intergrated Compedium of Biology. 43 338-346. Bartolomei M. S. and Ferguson-Smith A. C. (2011) Mammalian Genomic Imprinting. Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Biology 3: A 002592 last accessed online 10/08/2013. Bartolomei M. S. (2009) Genomic imprinting: employing and avoiding epigenetic processes. Genes and Development 23 2124–2133. Bates P. A. (2007) Transmission of Leishmania metacyclic promastigotes by phlebotomine sandflies. Internationa Journal for Parasitology 37 10-3 1097-1106. Beaucournu J.C., Degeilh B.and Guiguen C. (2005) The flea parasites of birds: taxonomic diversity and dispersion. Parasite 12 111-121. Belkaid Y., Valenzuela J. G. , Kamhawi S., Rowton E., Sacks D. L., Ribeiro J. M. (2000) Delayed-type hypersensitivity to Phlebotomus papatasi sandfly bite: an adaptive response induced by the fly? Procedures of the National Academy of Science USA 97 6704–6709. Benecke N. (1999) The Holocene History of the European Vertebrate Fauna. Modern Aspects of Research: Verlag Marie Leidorf GmbH. Pages 355-371. Bengis R. G. and Erasmus J. M. (1988) Wildlife diseases in South Africa: a review. Rev. sci. tech. Off. International Epiz. 7:4 807-821. Berman J. D. (1997) Human Leishmaniasis: Clinical, Diagnostic, and Chemotherapeutic Developments in the Last 10 Years. Clinical Infectious Diseases. 24 684-703. Biek R, O’Hare A, Wright D, Mallon T, McCormick C, Orton R. J., McDowell S., Trewby H., Skuce R. A. and Kao R. R. (2012) Whole Genome Sequencing Reveals Local Transmission Patterns of Mycobacterium bovis in Sympatric Cattle and Badger Populations. PLoS Pathog 8(11): e1003008. Bielby J., Donnelly C. A., Pope L. C., Burke T, and Woodroffe R. (2014) Badger responses to small-scale culling may compromise targeted control of bovine tuberculosis. PNAS 111: 25 9193-9198. Bitew M., Amedie Y. and Abebe A. (2010) Prevalence of Bovine Trypanosomosis in Selected Areas of Jabi Tehenan District, West Gojjam Of Amhara Regional State, Northwestern Ethiopia. Global Veterinaria 5:5 243-247. Blackshields G., Sievers F., Shi W., Wilm A., Higgins D. G. (2010) Sequence embedding for fast construction of guide trees for multiple sequence alignment. Algorithms for Molecular Biology 5:21 Bossdorf O.,Richards C. L. and Pigliucc M. (2008) Epigenetics for ecologists. Ecology Letters 11 106-115. Botero A., Thompson C. K., Peacock C. S., Clode P. L., Nicholls P. K., Wayne A. F., Lymbery A. J. and Thompson R. C. A. (2013) Trypanosome genetic diversity, polyparasitism and the population decline of the critically endangered Australian marsupial, the brush tailed bettong or woylie (Bettongia penicillata). International Journal for Parasitology 2 77-89. Bouckaert R., Heled J., Kühnert D., Vaughan P., Wu C-H., Xie D., Suchard M. A., Rambaut A. and Drummond A. J. (2014) BEAST 2: A Software Platform for Bayesian Evolutionary Analysis. PLoS Comput Biol 10, e1003537. Boutlis C. S., Yeo T. W. and Anstey N. M. (2006) Malaria tolerance – for whom the cell tolls? Trends in Parasitology 22:8 371-377. Bowie A. and O’Neill L. A. J. (2000) The interleukin-1 receptor/Toll-like receptor superfamily: signal generators for pro-inflammatory interleukins and microbial products. Journal of Leukocyte Biology 67 508-515. Brigand F. et al (2006) Energy metabolism of trypanosomatids: adaptation to available carbon sources. Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology. 149 1-9 Byrne A. W., Sleeman D. P., O’Keeffe J. And Davenport J. (2012) The ecology of the European badger (Meles meles) in Ireland: a review. Biology and environment: proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. 112b:1 105-132. Campino L., Santos-Gomes G. M., Pratlong F., Antunes F., Mauricio I., Dedet J. P. and Abranches P. (1997) HIV/Leishmania co-infections in Portugal: diagnosis and isoenzyme characterization of Leishmania. Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology 91 433-436. Campos M. A. S., Almeida I. C., Takeuchi O, Akira S., Valente E. P., Procópio D. O., Travassos L. R., Smith J. A., Golenbock D. T. and Gazzinelli R. T. (2001) Activation of toll-like receptor-2 by glycosylphosphatidylinositol anchors from a protozoan parasite. Journal of Immunology 167:1 416-423. Cargill E. J. and Womack J. E. (2007) Detection of polymorphisms in bovine toll-like receptors 3, 7, 8, and 9. Genomics. 89:745-755. Carrera-Silva E. A., Cano R. C., Guinazu N., Aoki M. P., Pellegrini A. and Gea S. (2008) TLR2, TLR4 and TLR9 are differentially modulated in liver lethally injured from BALB/c and C57BL/6 mice during Trypanosoma cruzi acute infection. Molecular Immunology 45 3580-3588. Carter S. P., Delahay R. J., Smith G. C., Macdonald D. W., Riordan P., Etherington, T. R., Pimley E. R., Walker N. J. and Cheeseman C. L. (2007). Culling-induced social perturbation in Eurasian badgers Meles meles and the management of TB in cattle: an analysis of a critical problem in applied ecology. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 274:1626 2769–2777. Carter S. P., Chambers M. A., Rushton S. P., Shirley M. D. F., Schuchert P., Pietravalle S., Murray A., Rogers F., Gettinby G., Smith G. C., Delahay R. J., Hewinson R. G. and McDonald R. A. (2012) BCG Vaccination Reduces Risk of Tuberculosis Infection in Vaccinated Badgers and Unvaccinated Badger Cubs. PLoS ONE 7(12): e49833. Carvalhoa A., Marques A., Maciela P. and Rodrigues F. (2007) Study of disease-relevant polymorphisms in the TLR4 and TLR9 genes: A novel method applied to the analysis of the Portuguese population. Molecular and Cellular Probes 21 316-320. Castaño-Rodríguez N., Kaakoush N. O., Pardo A. L., Goh K., Fock K. M., Mitchell H. M. (2014) Genetic polymorphisms in the Toll-like receptor signalling pathway in Helicobacter pylori infection and related gastric cancer. Human Immunology 75 808-815. Castellucci L., Cheng L. H., Araujo C. (2005) Familial aggregation of mucosal leishmaniasis in northeast Brazil. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygeine 73 69-73. Cestari I., Evans-Osses I., Schlapbach L. J., Messias-Reason L. and Ramirez M. I. (2013) Mechanisms of complement lectin pathway activation and resistance by trypanosomatid parasites. Molecular Immunology 53 328-334. Charbonnel N., Pagès M., Sironen T., Henttonen H., Vapalahti O., Mustonen J. and Vaheri A. (2014) Immunogenetic Factors Affecting Susceptibility of Humans and Rodents to Hantaviruses and the Clinical Course of Hantaviral Disease in Humans. Viruses 6 2214-2241 Chen G., Severo M. S., Sohail M., Sakhon O. S., Wikel S. K., Kotsyfakis M. and Pedra J. H. F. (2012) Ixodes scapularis saliva mitigates inflammatory cytokine secretion during Anaplasma phagocytophilum stimulation of immune cells. Parasites and Vectors 5:229 10 pages. Chen G. and Pedra J. H. F. (2010) The Inflammasome in Host Defense. Sensors 10 97-112. Chou C., Tegenfeldt J. O., Bakajin O., Chan S. S., Cox E. C., Darnton N., Duke T. and Austin H. (2002) Electrodeless Dielectrophoresis of Single- and Double-Stranded DNA. Biophysical Journal 83 2170-2179. Christmas P. (2010) Toll-Like Receptors: Sensors that Detect Infection. Nature Education 3:9 85. Clayton J. (2010) Chagas disease 101. Nature 465 4-5. Clifton-Hadley R. S., Wilesmith J. W. and Stuart F. A. (1993) Mycobacterium bovis in the European badger (Meles meles) Epidemiological findings in tuberculous badgers from a naturally infected population. Epidemiology of Infectious Diseases 111 9-19. Covarrubias C., Cortez M., D. Ferreira and Yoshida N. (2007) Interaction with host factors exacerbates Trypanosoma cruzi cell invasion capacity upon oral infection. International Journal for Parasitology. 37: 14 1609-1616. Cox A. P., Tosas O., Tilley A., Picozzi K., Coleman P., Hide G. and Welburn S. C. (2010) Constraints to estimating the prevalence of trypanosome infections in East African zebu cattle. Parasites and Vectors 3:82 1-8. Cox A. P., Tilley A, McOdimba F., Fyfe J., Hide G. and Welburn S. C. (2005) A PCR based assay for detection and differentiation of African trypanosome species in blood. Experimental Parasitology 111:2 4-9. Cox R., Stewart P. D., Macdonald D. W. (1999) The Ectoparasites of the European Badger, Meles meles, and the Behaviour of the Host-Specific Flea, Paraceras melis. Journal of Insect Behaviour 12:2. Croan D. G., Morrison D. A., Ellis J. T. (1997) Evolution of the genus Leishmania revealed by comparison of DNA and RNA polymerase gene sequences. Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology 89 149-159. Cuervo P., Domont G. B. and De Jesus J. B. (2010) Proteomics of trypanosomatids of human medical importance. Journal of Proteomics 73 845-867. Cuscó A., Sánchez A., Altet L., Ferrer L. and Francino O. (2014) Non-synonymous genetic variation in exonic regions of canine Toll-like receptors. Canine Genetics and Epidemiology 1:11. Davies C. R., Reithinger R., Campbell-Lendrum D., Feliciangeli D., Borges R. and Rodriguez N. (2000) The epidemiology and control of leishmaniasis in Andean countries. Cad Saúde Publica 16 925–950. Davies J. M. (1997) Molecular Mimicry: can epitope mimicry induce auto-immune disease? Immunology and Cell Biology 75 113-126 Dawnay N., Ogden R., Thorpe R. S., Pope L. C., Dawson D. A. and McEwing R. (2008) A forensic STR profiling system for the Eurasian badger: A framework for developing profiling systems for wildlife species. Forensic Science International. Genetics 2 47-53. De Albuquerque C. V. and Linardi P. M. (2006) Scanning electron microscopy studies of sensilla and other structures of the head of Polygenis tripus. Micron 37 557- 565. De Carvalho T. M. U. and De Souza W. (1989) Early events related with the behaviour of Trypanosoma cruzi within an endocytic vacuole in mouse peritoneal macrophages. Cell Structure and Function. 14:4 383-392. De Souza W., Ulisses de Carvalho T. M. and Barrias E. S. (2010) Review on Trypanosoma cruzi : Host Cell Interaction. International Journal of Cell Biology Dean S. R. and Meola R.W. (2002) Effective diet composition on weight gain, sperm transfer, and instrumentation in the cat flea. Journal of medical entomology 39 370-375. De Greef C. and Hamers R. (1994) The serum resistance-associated (SRA) gene of Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense encodes a variant surface glycoprotein-like protein. Mol Biochem Parasitol. 68:2 277-284. Department of Environment, Food and Agriculture (2014) Notes for guidance: Importation of Cattle into the Isle of Man from Great Britain (version 17) 3 pages https://www.gov.im/media/193659/guidance-notes-on-importation-of-cattle-v17.pdf Deschamps P., Lara E., Marande W., Lopez-Garcıa P., Ekelund F. and Moreira D. (2011) Phylogenomic Analysis of Kinetoplastids Supports That Trypanosomatids Arose from within Bodonids. Molecular Biology and Evolution 28:1 53-58. Desjeux P. (2001) The increase in risk factors for leishmaniasis worldwide. Transripts of the Royal Socety of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 95 239-243. Devarajua P., Gulatib R., Antonya P. T., Mithuna C. B. and Negia V. S. (2014) Susceptibility to SLE in South Indian Tamils may be influenced bygenetic selection pressure on TLR2 and TLR9 genes. Molecular Immunology 4524 Author’s copy. Dias J. C. P. (2007) Southern Cone Iniative for the elimination of domestic populations of Triatoma infestans and the interruption of transfusional Chagas disease. Historical apects, present situation and perspectives. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 102:1 11-18. Dieffenbach C. W., Lowe T. M. J. and Dveksler G. W. (1993) General Concepts for PCR Primer Design. PCR Methods and Applications 3:9 530-537. Domingo-Roura X. ,Macdonald D . W., Roy M. S., Marmi J., Terradas J., Woodroffe R., Burke T and Wayne R . K. (2003) Confirmation of low genetic diversity and multiple breeding females in a social group of Eurasian badgers from microsatellite and field data. Molecular Ecology 12 533-539. Donnelly C. A and Hone J. (2010) Is there an association between levels of bovine tuberculosis in cattle herds and badgers? Statistical Communications in Infectious Diseases 2:1 Accession Number 20133149921. Draper S. (2013) An Introduction to the Farming Advice Service. FAS Presentation 47 slides. Drouin-Ouellet J. and Cicchetti F. (2012) Inflammation and neurodegeneration: the story ‘retolled.’ Trends in Pharmacological Sciences 33: 10 542-552. Dudas G. and Rambaut A. (2014) Phylogenetic Analysis of Guinea 2014 Ebolavirus Outbreak. PLoS Currents: Outbreaks 6. Echodu R., Sistrom M., Bateta R., Murilla G., Okedi L., Aksoy S., Enyioha C., Enyaru J., Opiyo E., Gibson W. and Caccone A. (2015) Genetic Diversity and Population Structure of Trypanosoma brucei in Uganda: Implications for the Epidemiology of Sleeping Sickness and Nagana. PLOS 10.1371. Eiseman C. H. and Binnengton K. C. (1994) The Peritrophic membrane: its formation, structure, chemical composition and permeability in relation to vaccination against ectoparasitic arthropods. International Journal for Parasitology 24 15-26. Eizirik E., Murphy W.J., Koepfli K., Johnson W. E., Dragoo J. W., Wayne R. K. and O’BrienS. J. (2010) Pattern and timing of diversification of the mammalian order Carnivora inferred from multiple nuclear gene sequences. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 56 49–63. Ekanayake D. K., Minning T., Weatherly B., Gunasekera K., Nilsson D.,Tarleton R., Ochsenreiter T. and Sabatini R. (2011) Epigenetic Regulation of Transcription and Virulence in Trypanosoma cruzi by O-Linked Thymine Glucosylation of DNA. Molecular and Cellular Biology 31:8 1690-1700. El-Omar E. M., Ng M. T. and Hold G. L. (2008) Polymorphisms in Toll-like receptor genes and risk of cancer. Oncogene 27 244-252. Emingil G., Berdeli A., Baylas H., Saygan B. H., Gurkan A., Kose T. and Atilla G. (2007) Toll-Like Receptor 2 and 4 Gene Polymorphisms in Generalized Aggressive Periodontitis. Journal of Periodontology 78:10 1968-1977. Epting C. L., Coates B. M. and Engman D. M. (2010) Molecular mechanisms of host cell invasion by Trypanosoma cruzi. Experimental Parasitology 126 283-291. Etherington R., Pimley E. R., Walker N. J., Cheeseman C. L., Carter S. P., Delahay R. J., Smith G. C., Macdonald D. W., Riordan P. (2007) Culling-induced social perturbation in Eurasian badgers Meles meles and the management of TB in cattle: an analysis of a critical problem in applied ecology. Proceedings of the Royal Society B 274 Everett B. (2009) Immunological correlates of illness severity and course in acute Q fever. Thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, University of NSW. 352 pages. Fairnell E. H. and Barrett J. H. (2007) Fur-bearing species of the Scottish islands. Journal of Archaeological Science 34 463-484. Falstad I. and Karter A. J. (1992) Parasites, bright males, and the immunocompetence handicap. American Naturalist 139 603-622. Ferguson M. A. J. (1999) The structure, biosynthesis and functions of glycosylphosphatidylinositol anchors, and the contributions of trypanosome research. Journal of Cell Science 112 2799-2809. Fevre E. M., Coleman P. G., Odiit M., Magona J. W., Welburn S. C. and Woolhouse (2001) the origins of a new Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense sleeping sickness outbreak in eastern Uganda. The Lancet 358 625-628. Finelle P. (1972) African animal trypanosomiasis. Disease and Chemotherapy 1-26 Frantz A. C., San E. D. L., Pope L. C. and Burke T. (2010) (a) Using genetic methods to investigate dispersal in two badger (Meles meles) populations with different ecological characteristics. Heredity 104 49-501. Frantz A. C., Pope L. C. Etherington T. R., Wilson G. J.and Burke T. (2010) (b) Using isolation-by-distance based approaches to assess the barrier effect of linear landscape elements on badger (Meles meles) dispersal. Molecular Ecology 19 1663-1674. Frantz A. C., Do Linh San E., Pope L. and Burke T. (2010) Using genetic methods to investigate dispersal in two badger (Meles meles) populations with different ecological characteristics. Heredity 104 493-501. Frantz A. C., Schaul M., Pope L. C., Fack F., Schley L., Muller C. P. and Roper T. J. (2004) Estimating population size by genotyping remotely plucked hair: the Eurasian badger. Journal of Applied Ecology 41 985-995. Frantz A. C., Pope L. C., Carpenter P . J ., Roper T . J ., Wilson G . J ., Delahay R . J . and Burke T. (2003) Reliable microsatellite genotyping of the Eurasian badger (Meles meles) using faecal DNA. Molecular Ecology. 12 1649-1661. Friedberg E. C. and Lawrence E. (2001) Sydney Brenner: My Life in Science, as told to Lewis Wolpert. BioMed Central Ltd, London. 191 pages. Gallagher J. and Clifton-Hadley R. S. (2000) Tuberculosis in badgers; a review of the disease and its significance for other animals. Research in Vetrinary Science 69:3 203-217. Gao F. and Zhang C. T. (2006) GC-Profile: a web-based tool for visualizing and analyzing the variation of GC content in genomic sequences. Nucleic Acids Research 34 10.1093. Gao Z., Rennie D. C. and Senthilselvan A. (2010) Allergic rhinitis and genetic components: focus on Toll-like receptors (TLRs) gene polymorphism. The Application of Clinical Genetics 3 109-120. Garcia E. S., Castro D. P., Figueiredo M. B. and Azambuja P. (2012) Parasite-mediated interactions within the insect vector: Trypanosoma rangeli strategies. Parasites and Vectors 5:105 Golovkin A. S., Ponasenko A. V., Yuzhalin A. E., Salakhov R. R., Khutornaya M. V., Kutikhin A. G., Rutkovskaya N. V., Savostyanova Y. Y. and Barbarash L. S. (2015) An association between single nucleotide polymorphisms within TLR and TREM-1 genes and infective endocarditis. Cytokine 71: 16-21. Golovkin A. S., Ponasenko A. V., Khutornaya M. V., Kutikhin A. G., Salakhov R. R., Yuzhalin A. E., Zhidkova I. I., Barbarash O. L. and Barbarasha L. S. (2014) Association of TLR and TREM-1 gene polymorphismswith risk of coronary artery disease in a Russian population. Gene 550: 101-109. Gomaz A., Pavelic J. and Glavan T. M. (2012)The polymorphisms in Toll-like receptor genes and cancer risk. Periodicum Biologorum 114:4 461-469. Gomez-Diaz E., Jorda M., Peinado M. A. and Rivero A. (2012) Epigenetics of Host–Pathogen Interactions: The Road Ahead and the Road Behind. PLoS Pathogens 8(11): e1003007. Gong J., Wei T., Zhang N., Jamitzky F., Heckl W. M., Rössle S. C. and Stark R. W. (2010) TollML: a database of toll-like receptor structural motifs. Journal of Molecular Modelling 16:7 1283-1289 Gormley E. and Costello E. (2003) Tuberculosis and badgers: new approaches to diagnosis and control. Journal of Applied Microbiology 94 80-86. Gortazar C., Torres M. J., Vicente J., Acevedo P., Reglero M., de la Fuente J., Negro J. J. and Aznar-Martın J. (2008) Bovine Tuberculosis in Donana Biosphere Reserve: The Role of Wild Ungulates as Disease Reservoirs in the Last Iberian Lynx Strongholds. PLoS ONE 3(7): e2776. Gowda D. C. (2007) TLR-mediated cell signaling by malaria GPIs. Trends in Parasitology 23(12) 596- 604. Grabau J. C. and Novick L. F.(1995) False Positive Tuberculosis Skin Test Results. Public Health Reports. Vol 110 703-706. Grange J. and Zumla A. (1999) Tuberculosis and the poverty-disease cycle. Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine. 92:3 105-107. Grech V., Mizzi J. and Mangion M. (2000) Visceral leishmaniasis in Malta; an 18 year paediatric, population based study. Arch Dis Child 82 381-385. Grueber C. E., Wallis G. P. and Jamieson I. G. (2014) Episodic Positive Selection in the Evolution of Avian Toll-Like Receptor Innate Immunity Genes. PLoS ONE 9(3): e89632. Grueber C. E., Wallis G. P., King T. M. and Jamieson I. G. (2012) Variation at Innate Immunity Toll-Like Receptor Genes in a Bottlenecked Population of a New Zealand Robin. PLoS ONE 7(9): e45011. Guhl F. and Vallejo G. A. (2003) Trypanosoma (Herpetosoma) rangeli Tejera, 1920 - An Updated Review. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 98:4 435-442. Hamann L., Koch A., Sur S., Hoefer N., Glaeser C., Schulz S., Gross M., Franke A., Nöthlings A., Zacharowski K. and Schumann R. R. (2013) Association of a common TLR-6 polymorphism with coronary artery disease-implications for healthy ageing? Immunity and Ageing 10:43. Hamilton P. B., Gibson W. C., Stevens J. R. (2007) Patterns of co-evolution between trypanosomes and their hosts deduced from ribosomal RNA and protein-coding gene phylogenies. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 44: 15–25. Hashemi-Shahri S. M., Taheri M., Gadari A., Naderi M., Bahari G. and Hashemi M. (2014) Association Between TLR8 and TLR9 Gene Polymorphisms and Pulmonary Tuberculosis. Gene Cell Tissue 1(1): e18316. Hawn T. R., Scholes D., Li S. S., Wang H., Yang Y., Roberts P. L., Stapleton A. E., Janer M., Aderem A., Stamm W. E., Zhao L. P. and Hooton T. M. (2009) Toll-Like Receptor Polymorphisms and Susceptibility to Urinary Tract Infections in Adult Women. PLoS ONE 4(6). Herwaldt B. L. (1999) Leishmaniasis. Lancet 354 1191-1199. Hide G. and Tait A. (2009) Molecular epidemiology of African sleeping sickness. Parasitology 136 1491-1500. Hide G., Morley E. K., Hughes J. M., Gerwash O., Elmahaishi M. S., Elmahaishi K. H., Thomasson D., Wright E. A., Williams R. H., Murphy R. G. and Smith J. E. (2009) Evidence for high levels of vertical transmission in Toxoplasma gondii. Parasitology 136: 14 1877-1885 Hide M., Bucheton B., Kamhawi S., Bras-Goncalves R., Sundar S., Lemesre J. L. and Banuls A. L. (2007) Understanding Human Leishmaniasis: The need for an Integrated Approach. Encyclopedia of Infectious Diseases: Modern Methodologies (ed. by M. Tibayrenc) pp. 87. Wiley-Liss, Hoboken, N.J. Hide G. (2003) The origins of sleeping sickness epidemics. Biologist 50:6 268-272. Hide G. (1999) History of Sleeping Sickness in East Africa. Clinical Microbiology reviews. 12:1 112-125. Hide G., Angus S. D., Holmes P. H., Maudlin I. and Welburn S. C. (1998) Trypanosoma brucei: Comparison of Circulating Strains in and Endemic and Epidemic Area of a Sleeping Sickness Focus. Experimental Parasitology 89: 21-29. Hide G. (1997) The molecular epidemiology of the trypanosomatids, in Trypanosomiasis and Leishmaniasis: Biology and Control (Eds: Hide G., Mottram J. C., Coombs G. H. and Holmes P. H). 289-304. Hide G., Tait A., Maudlin I. and Welburn S. C. (1996) The Origins, dynamics and generation of Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense epidemics in East Africa. Parasitology Today 12: 50-55. Hide G., Tait A., Maudlin I. and Welburn S. C. (1994) Epidemiological relationships of Trypanosoma brucei stocks from South East Uganda: evidence for different population structures in human infective and non-human infective isolates. Parasitology 109 95-111. Hide G., Buchanen N., Welburn S. C., Maudin I., Barry J. D. and Tait A. (1991) Trypanosoma b. rhodesiense: Characterization of stocks from Zambia, Kenya and Uganda using repetitive DNA probes. Experimental parasitology 72 430-439. Hide G., Cattand P., LeRay D., Barry J. D. and Tait A. (1990) The identification of T. brucei subspecies using repetitive DNA sequences. Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology 39 213-226. Higgins D. A. (1985) The skin inflammatory response of the badger (Meles meles) British Journal of Experimental Pathology 66: 643-653. Ho D. H. and Burggren W. W. (2010) Epigenetics and transgenerational transfer: a physiological perspective. The Journal of Experimental Biology 213 3-16. Holla L. I., Vokurka J., Hrdlickova B., Augustin P. and Fassmann A. (2010) Association of Toll-like receptor 9 haplotypes with chronic periodontitis in Czech population. Journal of Clinical Periodontology 37: 152-159. Hou B., Reizis B. and DeFranco A. L. (2008) Toll-like Receptors Activate Innate and Adaptive Immunity by using Dendritic Cell-Intrinsic and -Extrinsic Mechanisms. Immunity 29 272-282. Hounsome T. D., Young R. P., Davison J., Yarnell R. W., Trewby I. D., Garnett B. T., Delahay R. J. and Wilson G. J. (2005) An evaluation of distance sampling to estimate badger (Meles meles) abundance. Journal of Zoology 266 1-7 Huard R. C., Fabre M., de Haas P., Lazzarini L. C. O., van Soolingen D., Cousins D. and Ho J. L. (2006) Novel Genetic Polymorphisms That Further Delineate the Phylogeny of the Mycobacterium tuberculosis Complex. Journal of Bacteriology 188:12 4271–4287. Huck M., Frantz A. C., Dawson D. A., Burke T. and Roper T. J. (2008) Low genetic variability, female-biased dispersal and high movement rates in an urban population of Eurasian badgers Meles meles. Journal of Animal Ecology e:01415. Hybu Cig Cymru (2013) A review of UK and Welsh red meat production during the first quarter of 2013. HCC Market Survey. 8 pages. Ideozu E. J., Whiteoak A. M., Tomlinson A. J., Robertson A., Delahay R. J. and Hide G. (unpublished, 2015) Detection of trypanosomes in European badgers using ITS-PCR. Ioana M., Ferwerda B., Plantinga T. S., Stappers M. Oosting M., McCall M., Cimpoeru A., Burada F., Panduru N., Sauerwein R., Doumbo O., van der Meer J. W. M., van Crevel R., Joosten L. A. B. and Netea M. G. (2012) Different Patterns of Toll-Like Receptor 2 Polymorphisms in Populations of Various Ethnic and Geographic Origins. Infection and Immunity 80:5 1917. Iwamoto T., Sonobe T. and Hayashi K. (2003) Loop-Mediated Isothermal Amplification for Direct Detection of Mycobacterium tuberculosis Complex, M. avium, and M. intracellulare in Sputum Samples. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 41:6 2616-2622. Jabłonska A., Paradowska E., Studzinska M., Suski P., Nowakowska D., Wisniewska-Ligier M., Wozniakowska-Gesicka T., Wilczynski J. and Lesnikowski Z. J. (2014) Relationship between toll-like receptor 2 Arg677Trp and Arg753Gln and toll-like receptor 4 Asp299Gly polymorphisms and cytomegalovirus infection. International Journal of Infectious Diseases e11-e15. Janardhanan J., Martin S. J., Astrup E., Veeramanikandan R., Aukrust P., Ooriapadickal C Abraham1 and George M Varghese1 (2013) Single-nucleotide polymorphisms in Toll-like receptor (TLR)-2, TLR4 and heat shock protein 70 genes and susceptibility to scrub typhus. Journal of Human Genetics 58: 707-710. Janssens S. and Beyaert R. (2003) Role of Toll-Like Receptors in Pathogen Recognition. Clinical Microbiology Reviews 16:4 637-646. Jaric M., Segal J., Silva-Herzog E., Schneper L., Mathee K. and Narasimhan G. (2013) Better primer design for metagenomics applications by increasing taxonomic distinguishability. BMC Proceedings 7:S4 10 pages. Jarvinen J. A. and Dalmasso A. P. (1977) Trypanosoma musculi Infections in Normocomplementemic, C5-Deficient, and C3-Depleted Mice. Infection and Immunity 16:2 557-563. Johnson D. D. P, Macdonald D. W. and Morecroft M. D. (2001) An analysis of social spacing in the European badger (Meles meles) in the UK. Wissenschaftliche Mitteilungen aus dem Niederösterreichischen Landesmuseum 14: 161-170. Kaiser R., Tang L. F., Taylor K. E., Sterba K., Nititham J., Brown E. E., Edberg J. C., McGwin G., Alarcon G. C., Ramsey-Goldman R., Reveille J. D., Vila L. M., Petri M., Rauch J., Miller E., Mesznik K., Kwok P., Kimberly R. P., Salmon J. E. and Criswell L. A. (2014) A Polymorphism in TLR2 Is Associated With Arterial Thrombosis in a Multiethnic Population of Patients With Systemic Lupus Erythematosus. Arthritis and Rheumatology 66:7 1882–1887. Kamhawi S. (2006) Phlebotomine sand flies and Leishmania parasites: friends or foes? Trends in Parasitology 22 439-445. Karle R., Holder F. and Smith M. (2003) Application of FTA-based Technology for Sample Collection, Transport, Purification, and Storage of PCR-ready Plant DNA. Last accessed online 09/08/2013. Karolemeas K., Donnelly C. A., Conlan A. J. K., Mitchell A. P., Clifton-Hadley R. S., Upton P., Wood J. L. N. and McKinley T. J. (2012) The Effect of Badger Culling on Breakdown Prolongation and Recurrence of Bovine Tuberculosis in Cattle Herds in Great Britain. PLoS ONE 7(12) e51342. Kathrani A., House A., Catchpole B., Murphy A., Werling D. and Allenspach K. (2011) Breed-independent toll-like receptor 5 polymorphisms show association with canine inflammatory bowel disease. Tissue Antigens 78:94-101. Kayama H. and Takeda K. (2010) The innate immune response to T. cruzi infection. Microbes and Infection 12 511-517. Kennedy P. G. E. (2005) Sleeping Sickness: Human African Trypanosomiasis. Practical Neurology Review 5 260-267 Kerr S. F. (2006) Molecular trees of trypanosomes incongruent with fossil records of hosts. Memorias de Instituto Oswaldo Cruz 101 25-30. Kim E. J., Chung W. C., Lee K., Paik C. N., Jung S. H., Lee B. I., Chae H. S. and Choi K. Y. (2011) Association Between Toll-Like Receptors/CD14 Gene Polymorphisms and Inflammatory Bowel Disease in Korean Population. Gastroenterology and Hepatology 3346. Khan A., Aslam M. A., Hussain I., Naz A. G., Rana I. A., Ahmad M. M., Ali M. and Ahmad S. (2013) Role of Toll-like receptor 2 polymorphism in susceptibility to pulmonary tuberculosis in Pakistani population. International Journal of Immunogenetics 0: 1-7. Khan I. A. (2007) Toll road for Toxoplasma gondii: the mystery continues. Trends in Parasitology 23(1) 1-3. Khandelwal G. and Bhyravabhotla J. (2010) A Phenomenological Model for Predicting Melting Temperatures of DNA Sequences. PLoS ONE 5:8 e12433. Kidner P. (2014) A Place of Safety: the highs and lows of working with wildlife. PK Publishing, Secret World Wildlife Rescue. 207 pages Kierszenbaum F. (1999) Chagas’ Disease and the Autoimmunity Hypothesis. Clinical Microbiology Reviews 12:2 210-223. Kim J. K., Samaranayake M. and Pradhan S. (2009) Epigenetic mechanisms in mammals. Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences 66 596-612. Kirk W. D. J. (1991) The size relationship between insects and their hosts. Ecological entomology 16 351-359. Koepfli K. P., Deere K. A., Slater G. J., Begg C., Begg K., Grassman L., Lucherini M. and Veron G. (2008) Multigene phylogeny of the Mustelidae: Resolving relationships, tempo and biogeographic history of a mammalian adaptive radiation. BMC Biology 6:10 1741-1747. Kong Q., Lu S., Tong Q., Lou D., Chen R., Zheng B., Kumagai T., Wen L., Ohta N. and Zhou X. (2012) Loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP): Early detection of Toxoplasma gondii infection in Mice. Parasites & Vectors 5:2. Kowalczyk R., Zalewski A. and Jêdrzejewska B. A. (2004) Seasonal and spatial pattern of shelter use by badgers Meles meles in Biaowieja Primeval Forest (Poland). Acta Theriologica 49:1 75-92. Krasnov B. R. (2008) Functional and evolutionary ecology of fleas: a model for ecological parasitology. Cambridge University press, 593 pages. Krieg A. M. and Vollmer J. (2008) Toll-like receptors 7, 8, and 9: linking innate immunity to autoimmunity. Immunological Reviews. 220:1 251-269. Krieg A. M. (2002) From A to Z on CpG. Trends in Immunology 23:2 64-65. Ku C., von Bernuth H., Picard C., Zhang S., Chang H., Yang K.,Chrabieh M., Issekutz A. C., Cunningham C. K., Gallin J., Holland S. M., Roifman C., Ehl S., Smart J., Tang M., Barrat F. J., Levy O., McDonald D., Day-Good N. K., Miller R., Takada H., Hara T., Al-Hajjar S., Al-Ghonaium A., Speert D., Sanlaville D., Li X., Geissmann F., Vivier E., Maródi L., Garty B., Chape H.l, Rodriguez-Gallego C., Bossuyt X., Abel L., Puel A. and Casanova J. (2007) Selective predisposition to bacterial infections in IRAK-4–deficient children: IRAK-4–dependent TLRs are otherwise redundant in protective immunity. The Rockefeller University Press 204: 10 2407-2422. Kubarenko A. V., Ranjan S., Colak E., George J., Frank M.,2 and Weber A. N. R. (2010) Comprehensive modeling and functional analysis of Toll-like receptor ligand-recognition domains. Protein Science 19 558-569. Kuboki N., Inoue N., Sakurai T., Di Cello F., Grab D. J., Suzuki C. S. and Igarashi I. (2003) Loop-Mediated Isothermal Amplification for Detection of African Trypanosomes. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 41:12 5517-5524. Kulchavenya E., Kim C. S., Bulanova O. and Zhukova I. (2012) Male genital tuberculosis: epidemiology and diagnostic. World Journal of Urology 30: 15. Lane R. P. (1993) Sandflies (Phlebotominae) In: Lane R. P., Crosskey R. W., editors. Medical Insects and Arachnids. Chapman and Hall, London. 78–119. Langefeld T., Mohamed W., Ghai R. and Chakraborty T. (2009) Toll-Like Receptors and NOD-Like Receptors: Domain Architecture and Cellular Signalling. Chapter 9: Target Pattern Recognition in Innate Immunity, edited by Uday Kishore. Landes Bioscience and Springer. Lesellier S., Palmer S., Dalley D.J., Dave D., Johnson L., Hewinson R. G. and Chambers M. A. (2006) The safety and immunogenicity of Bacillus Calmette-Guerin (BCG) vaccine in European badgers (Meles meles). Veterinary Immunology and Immunopathology 112 24-37. Le Roex N., van Helden P. D., Koets A. P. and Hoal E. G. (2013) Bovine TB in livestock and wildlife: what’s in the genes? Physiological Genomics 45: 631-637. Liadaki K., Petinaki E., Skoulakis C., Tsirevelou P., Klapsa D., Germenis A. E. and Speletas M. (2011) Toll-Like Receptor 4 Gene (TLR4), but Not TLR2, Polymorphisms Modify the Risk of Tonsillar Disease Due to Streptococcus pyogenes and Haemophilus influenzae. Clinical And Vaccine Immunology, Feb. 2011 217–222 Liao W., Chen R., Lin H., Liu Y., Chen W., Tsai Y., Wan L. and Tsai F. (2010) Toll-like receptor gene polymorphisms are associated with susceptibility to Graves’ ophthalmopathy in Taiwan males. BMC Medical Genetics 11:154 Liu F., Lu W., Qian Q., Qi W., Hu J. and Feng B. (2012) Frequency of TLR 2, 4, and 9 Gene Polymorphisms in Chinese Population and Their Susceptibility to Type 2 Diabetes and Coronary Artery Disease. Journal of Biomedicine and Biotechnology. Article 373945, 7 pages. Lizundia R., Newman C., Buesching C. D., Ngugi D., Blake D., Sin Y. W., Macdonald D. W., Wilson A. and McKeever D. (2011) Evidence for a Role of the Host-Specific Flea (Paraceras melis) in the Transmission of Trypanosoma pestanai to the European Badger. PLoS ONE 6(2): e16977. Llywodraeth Cymru (2014) Bovine TB Eradication Programme IAA Badger Vaccination Project. Year 2 Report. Digital ISBN 978 1 4734 1222 4. 14 pages. Lu Y., Yeh W. and Ohashi P. S. (2008) LPS/TLR4 signal transduction pathway. Cytokine 42 145-151. Lvovsky L., Ioshikhes I., Raja M. C., Zevin-Sonkin D., Sobolev I. A., Liberzon A., Shwartzburd J. and Ulanovsky L. E. (1998) Interdependence between DNA template secondary structure and priming efficiencies of short primers. Nucleic Acids Research 26:23 5525-5532. Lynch J. M. (1996) Postglacial colonization of Ireland by mustelids, with particular reference to the badger (Meles meles L). Journal of Biogeography 23 179-185. Lyons R. (2014) http://seqcore.brcf.med.umich.edu/doc/dnaseq/interpret.html accessed 11/01/2014 MacLean L. M., Odiit M., Chisi J. E., Kennedy P. G. E., Sternberg J. M. (2010) Focus–Specific Clinical Profiles in Human African Trypanosomiasis Caused byTrypanosoma brucei rhodesiense. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 4(12): e906. Macdonald D. W., Newman C., Buesching C. D. and Johnson P. J. (2008) Male-biased movement in a high-density population of the Eurasian badger (Meles meles). Journal of Mammalogy 89:5 1077-1086. MacMorris-Adix M. (2008) Leishmaniasis: A review of the disease and the debate over the origin and dispersal of the causative parasite Leishmania. Macalester Reviews in Biogeography 1:2 19 pages. Mahmood K. H., Rook G. A. W., Stanford J. L., Stuart F. A. and Pritchard D. G. (1987) The immunological consequences of challenge with bovine tubercle bacilli in badgers (Meles meles). Epidemiology and Infection 98 155-163. Marsden P. D. (1986) Mucosal leishmaniasis. Transripts of the Royal Socety of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 80 859-876. Marshall O. J. (2004) PerlPrimer: cross-platform, graphical primer design for standard, bisulphite and real-time PCR. Bioinformatics Applications Note 20: 15 2471-2472. Martínez-Ríos M. A., Vargas-Alarcón G., Vallejo M., Cruz-Martinez E., Pérez-Méndez O., Medina-Andrade Á., De la Torre-García M., Pena-Duquea M. A. and Fragoso J. M. (2013) Toll-like receptor 4 gene polymorphisms and acute coronary syndrome: No association in a Mexican population. Archivos de Cardiologia de Mexico. 83:4 257-262. Martinon F., Mayor A. and Tschopp J. (2009) The Inflammasomes: Guardians of the Body. The Annual Review of Immunology 27 229-265. Matas-Cobos A. M., Redondo-Cerezo E., Alegría-Motte C., Martínez-Chamorro A., Saenz-López P., Jiménez P., Jiménez M. R., González-Calvín J. L., de Teresa J. and Osuna F. R. (2014) The Role of Toll-Like Receptor Polymorphisms in Acute Pancreatitis Occurrence and Severity. Pancreas Journal; author’s pre-release copy. Maudlin I., Welburn S. C., Gashumba J. K., Okuns N. and Kalunds M. (1990) The role of cattle in the epidemiology of sleeping sickness in Uganda. Bulletin de la Societe Francaise de Parasitologie 8:2 788. McCall L., Zhang W. and Matlashewski G. (2013) Determinants for the Development of Visceral Leishmaniasis Disease. PLoS Pathog 9(1): e1003053. McCarthy G., Shiel R., O’Rourke L., Murphy D., Corner L., Costello E. and Gormley E. (2009) Bronchoalveolar lavage cytology from captive badgers. American Society for Veterinary Clinical Pathology 38:3 381-387. Meddeb-Garnaoui A., Zrelli H. and Dellagi K. (2009) Effects of tropism and virulence of Leishmania parasites on cytokine production by infected human monocytes. Clinical and Experimental Immunology 155 199-206. Medvedev S. G. (2004) Morphological adaptations of fleas (Siphonapetra) to parasitism. Entomological review 83 313-333. Medzhitov R. (2009) Approaching the Asymptote: 20 Years Later. Immunity 30 766-775 Michelsen V. (1997) A revised interpretation of the mouthparts in adult fleas (Insecta, Siphonaptera). Zoologischer Anzeiger 35 217-223. Minning T. A., Weatherly D. B., Atwood J., Orlando R., and Tarleton R. L. (2009) The steady-state transcriptome of the four major life-cycle stages of Trypanosoma cruzi. BMC Genomics 10:370 Misch E. A. and Hawn T. R. (2008) Toll-like receptor polymorphisms and susceptibility to human disease. Clinical Science 114 347-360. Mockenhaupt F. P., Cramer J. P., Hamann L., Stegemann M. S., Eckert J., Oh N., Otchwemah R. N., Dietz E., Ehrhardt S., Schroder N. W. J., Bienzle U. and Schumann R. (2006) Toll-like receptor (TLR) polymorphisms in African children: Common TLR-4 variants predispose to severe malaria. PNAS 103:1 177-182. Mohammadi M., Zahedi M. J., Nikpoor A. R., Baneshi M. R. and Hayatbakhsh M. M. (2013) Interleukin-17 Serum Levels and TLR4 Polymorphisms in Ulcerative Colitis. Iranian Journal of Immunology 10:2 83-92. Moncada D. M., Kammanadiminti S. J. and Chadee K. (2003) Mucin and Toll-like receptors in host defence against intestinal parasites. Trends in Parasitology 19(7) 305- 311. Moreira D., Lopez-Garcıa P. and Vickerman K. (2014) An updated view of kinetoplastid phylogeny using environmental sequences and a closer outgroup: proposal for a new classification of the class Kinetoplastea. International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology 54, 1861-1875. Morger J., Bajnok J., Boyce K., Craig P. S., Rogan M. T., Lun Z., Hide G., Tschirren B. (2014) Naturally occurring Toll-like receptor 11 (TLR11) and Toll-like receptor 12 (TLR12) polymorphisms are not associated with Toxoplasma gondii infection in wild wood mice. Infection, Genetics and Evolution 26: 180–184 Mukherjee S., Ganguli D. and Majumder P. P. (2014) Global Footprints of Purifying Selection on Toll-Like Receptor Genes Primarily Associated with Response to Bacterial Infections in Humans. Genome Biology and Evolution 6:3 551-558. Murphy G., Oldbury D., Hughes J., Hide G., Thomasson D., and Williams H. (2008) Role of urban mice in transmission of Toxoplasma gondii. Proceedings of the Sixth International Conference on Urban Pests, Robinson W. H. and Bajomi D. (editors) pp. 319-323. Murphy K., Travers P. and Walport M. (2008) Janeway’s immunobiology, 7th edition. New York, NT: Garland Science. Muzio M., Bosisio D., Polentarutti N., D'amico G., Stoppacciaro A., Mancinelli R., van't Veer C., Penton-Rol G., Ruco L. P., Allavena P. and Mantovani A. (2000) Differential Expression and Regulation of Toll-Like Receptors in Human Leukocytes: Selective Expression of TLR3 in Dendritic Cells. Journal of Immunology 164 5998-6004. Nachtigall I., Tamarkin A., Tafelski S., Weimann A., Rothbart A., Heim S., Wernecke K. D. and Spies C. (2014) Polymorphisms of the toll-like receptor 2 and 4 genes are associated with faster progression and a more severe course of sepsis in critically ill patients. Journal of International Medical Research 42:1 93-110. Nadjm B, Van Tulleken C., Macdonald D. and Chiodini P. L. (2009) East African Trypanosomiasis in a Pregnant Traveler. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 15: 11 1866-1867. Njiru Z. K., Oumab J. O., Enyaru J. C. and Dargantes A. P. (2010) Loop-mediated Isothermal Amplification (LAMP) test for detection of Trypanosoma evansi strain B. Experimental Parasitology 125 196-201. Nogueira N. F. S., Gonzalez M. S., Gomes J. E. De Souza W., Garcia E. S. Azambuja P., Nohara L. L., Almeida I. C., Zingales B. and Colli W. (2007) Trypanosoma cruzi: involvement of glycoinositolphospholipids in the attachment to the luminal midgut surface of Rhodnius prolixus. Experimental Parasitology. 116:2 120-128. Norman F. F. and López-Vélez R. (2014) Mother-to-child transmission of Trypanosoma cruzi infection (Chagas disease): a neglected problem. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 108:7 388-390. Notomi T., Okayama H., Masubuchi H., Yonekawa T., Watanbe K., Amino N. and Hase T. (2000) Loop-mediated isothermal amplification of DNA. Nucleic Acids Research 28:12 62-69. Nouvellet P., Buesching C. D., Dugdale H. L., Newman C. and Macdonald D. W. (2011) Mouthing off about developmental stress: Individuality of palate marking in the European badger and its relationship with juvenile parasitoses. Journal of Zoology 283:52 52-62. Noyes H.A., Stevens J. R., Teixeirac M., Pheland J. and Holz P. (1999) A nested PCR for the ssrRNA gene detects Trypanosoma binneyi in the platypus and Trypanosoma sp. in wombats and kangaroos in Australia. International Journal for Parasitology 19 331-339 Noyes H.A., Ambrose P., Barker F., Begon M., Bennet M., Bown K. J. and Kemp S. J. (2002) Host specificity of Trypanosoma (Herpetosoma) species: evidence that bank voles (Clethrionomys glareolus) carry only one T. (H). evotomys 18S rRNA genotype but wood mice (Apodemus sylvaticus) carry at least two polyphyletic parasites. Parasitology 124 185-190. Nyakatura K. and Bininda-Emonds O. R. P. (2012)Updating the evolutionary history of Carnivora (Mammalia): a new species-level supertree complete with divergence time estimates. BMC Biology 10:12. O’Brien D. J., Schmitt S. M., Rudolph B. A. and Nugent G. (2011) Recent advances in the management of bovine tuberculosis in free-ranging wildlife. Veterinary Microbiology 151 23-33. O’Meara D. B., Edwards C. J., Sleeman D. P., Cross T. F., Statham M. J., Mcdowell J. R., Dillane E. J., Coughlan J. P., O’Leary D. P., O’Reilly C., Bradley D. G. and Carlsson J. (2012) Genetic structure of Eurasian badgers Meles meles (Carnivora: Mustelidae) and the colonization history of Ireland. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 106 893-909. Oliveira J., Busson M., Etain B., Jamain S., Hamdani N., Boukouaci W., Amokrane K., Bennabi M., LeGuen E., Dargél A. A., Houenou J., Ivanova R., Bellivier F., Henry C., Kahn J., Charron D., Krishnamoorthy R., Vervoitte L., Leboyer M. and Tamouza R. (2013) Polymorphism of Toll-like receptor 4 gene in bipolar disorder. Journal of Affective Disorders, pre-press copy. Oltenacu P. A. and Broom D. M. (2010) The impact of genetic selection for increased milk yield on the welfare of dairy cows. Animal Welfare 2010 19:S 39-49. Oosting M., ter Hofstede H., Sturm P., Adema G. J., Kullberg B., van der Meer J. W. M., Netea M. G. and Joosten L. A. B. (2011) TLR1/TLR2 Heterodimers Play an Important Role in the Recognition of Borrelia Spirochetes. PLoS ONE 6(10): e25998. Palm N. W. and Medzhitov R. (2009) Pattern recognition receptors and control of adaptive immunity. Immunological Reviews 227 221-233. Parida M., Sannarangaiah S., Dash P. K., Rao P. V. L. and Morita K. (2008) Loop mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP): a new generation of innovative gene amplification technique; perspectives in clinical diagnosis of infectious diseases. Reviews in Medical Virology 18 407-421. Park B. S., Song D. H., Kim H. M., Choi B., Lee H. and Lee J. (2009) The structural basis of lipopolysaccharide recognition by the TLR4–MD-2 complex. Nature 458 1191-1197. Parikh P. P., Zheng J., Logan-Klumpler F., Stoeckert Jr. C. J., Louis C., Topalis P., Protasio A. V., Sheth A. P., Carrington M., Berriman M. and Sahoo S. S. (2012) The Ontology for Parasite Lifecycle (OPL): towards a consistent vocabulary of lifecycle stages in parasitic organisms. Journal of Biomedical Semantics 3:5 Paul M., Stefaniak J., Smuszkiewicz P., Van Esbroeck M., Geysen D. and Clerin J. (2014) Outcome of acute East African trypanosomiasis in a Polish traveller treated with pentamidine. BMC Infectious Diseases 14:111 http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2334/14/111 Pereira M. E. A., Zhang K., Gong Y., Herrera E. M. and Ming M. (1996) Invasive phenotype of Trypanosoma cruzi restricted to a population expressing trans-sialidase. Infection and Immunity. 64: 9 3884-3892. Perić M., Bošnjak Z., Šarkanj B., Barbić J., Antolović-Požgain J., Ružman N., Roksandić-Križan I. and Vukovic D. (2014) Polymorphisms of Toll-like receptors 2 and 4 in chronically infected hepatitis C patients from north-east Croatia. Archives of Virology 159:12 Author’s copy. Pifer R. and Yarovinsky F. (2011) Innate responses to T. gondii in mice and humans. Trends in Parasitology 27: 9 388-394. Pine S. O., McElrath M. J. and Bochud P. (2009) Polymorphisms in toll-like receptor 4 and toll-like receptor 9 influence viral load in a seroincident cohort of HIV-1-infected individuals. AIDS 23:2387-2395. Pinedo P. J., Galvão K. N., Seabury C. M. (2013) Innate immune gene variation and differential susceptibility to uterine diseases in Holstein cows. Theriogenology 80: 384–390 Piscopo T. V. and Azzopardi C. M. (2006) Leishmaniasis. PostGrad Medical Journal 82 649-657. Reithinger R., Dujardin J., Louzir H., Pirmez C., Alexander B. and Brooker S. (2007) Cutaneous leishmaniasis. Lancet Infectious Diseases 7 581–596. Pond C. M. (2003) The Fats of Life. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK; pages 34-201. Pope L. C., Domingo-Roura X., Erven K. and Burke T. (2006) Isolation by distance and gene flow in the Eurasian badger (Meles meles) at both a local and broad scale. Molecular Ecology 15 371-386. Porcel B. M., Denoeud F., Opperdoes F., Noel B., Madoui M., Hammarton T. C., Field M.C., Da Silva C., Couloux A., Poulain J., Katinka M., Jabbari K., Aury J., Campbell D. A., Cintron R., Dickens N. J., Docampo R., Sturm N. R., Koumandou V. L., Fabre S., Flegontov P., Lukes J., Michaeli S., Mottram J. C., Szoor B., Dan Zilberstein D., Bringaud F., Wincker P. and Dollet M. (2013) The Streamlined Genome of Phytomonas spp. Relative to Human Pathogenic Kinetoplastids Reveals a Parasite Tailored for Plants. PLoS Genet 10(2): e1004007. Poulin R. and Oikos F. T. (2008) Epigenetic effects of infection on the phenotype of host offspring: parasites reaching across host generations. Oikos 117 331-335. Prokhortchouk E. and Defossez P. (2008) The cell biology of DNA methylation in mammals. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta 1783 2167-2173. Pulliam H.R. (2000) On the relationship between niche and distribution. Ecology letters 3 349-361. Qi Y.M. (1990) Fine structures of the reproductive system of three flea species: development of female genitalia, and, development of male genitalia. Acta Entomologica Sinica 33 182-188 and 403-411. Re F. and Strominger J. L. (2001) Mechanism of Signal Transduction: Toll-like Receptor 2 (TLR2) and TLR4 Differentially Activate Human Dendritic Cells. Journal of Biological Chemistry 276 37692-37699. Reed P. and Yarovinsky F. (2011) Innate responses to Toxoplasma gondii in mice and humans. Trends in Parasitology 27(9) 388-393. Reismann P. (2009)Study of the Toll-like receptor 4 gene polymorphisms in diseases presenting with subclinical and chronic inflammation (diabetes mellitus, ischemic stroke, periodontitis) Ph.D. thesis, Semmelweis University. Budapest. 12 pages. Rey A. W., Newman C., Buesching C. D., Nouvellet P. M. and Macdonald D. W. (2009) Border or Byway: The relationship between European badger (Meles meles) path networks and the use and function of associated latrines. Available online at www.ptes.org/files/1600_badgers_paths_and_latrines-_final_report.pdf last accessed 11/06/2013 Ribeiro-Gomes F. L., Peters N. C., Debrabant A. and Sacks D. L. (2012) Efficient capture of infected neutrophils by dendritic cells in the skin inhibits the early anti-Leishmania response. PLoS Pathog 8: e1002536. Ribeiro J.M.C., Vaughan J.A.and Farhang-Azad A.(1990) Characterisation of salivary apyrase activity of three rodent flea species. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology B 95 215-218. Riordan P., Delahay R. J., Cheeseman C., Johnson P. J. and Macdonald D.W. (2011) Culling-induced changes in badger (Meles meles) behaviour, social organisation and the epidemiology of bovine tuberculosis. PLoS ONE 6(12): e28904. Roach J. C., Glusman G., Rowen L., Kaur A. Purcell M. K., Smith K. D. Hood L. E. and Aderem A. (2005) the evolution of vertebrate Toll-like receptors. Procedures of the National Academy of Science USA 102 9577-9582. Rodrigues M. M., Oliveira A. C. and Bellio M. (2012) The Immune Response to Trypanosoma cruzi : Role of Toll-Like Receptors and Perspectives for Vaccine Development. Journal of Parasitology Research: Article ID 507874, 12 pages. Rodriguez-Osorio C. A., Lima G., Herrera-Caceres J. O., Villegas-Torres B. E., Zuniga J., Ponce-de-Leon S., Llorente L. and Sifuentes-Osorniog J. (2013) Genetic variations in toll-like receptor 4 in Mexican-Mestizo patients with intra-abdominal infection and/or pneumonia. Immunology Letters 153 41-46. Roper T. J., Ostler J. R., Schmid T. K.and Christian S. F. (2001) Sett use in European badgers. Behaviour 138 173-187. Ropert C., Ferreira L. R. P., Campos M. A. S., Procópio D. O., Travassos L. R., Ferguson M. A. J., Reis L. F. L., Teixeira M. M., Almeida I. C. and Gazzinelli R. T. (2002) Macrophage signaling by glycosylphosphatidylinositol-anchored mucin-like glycoproteins derived from Trypanosoma cruzi trypomastigotes. Microbes and Infection 4 1015-1025. Rosalino L. M., Torres J. and Santos-Reis M. (2006) A survey of helminth infection in Eurasian badgers (Meles meles) in relation to their foraging behaviour in a Mediterranean environment in southwest Portugal. European Journal of Wildlife Research 52 202-206. Runckel C., DeRisi J. and Flenniken M. L. (2014) A Draft Genome of the Honey Bee Trypanosomatid Parasite Crithidia mellificae. PLoS ONE 9(4): e95057. Rust M. K. (1994) Interhost movement of adult cat fleas. Journal of Medical Entomology 31 486-489. Rychlik W., Spencer W. J. and Rhoads R. E. (1990) Optimization of the annealing temperature for DNA amplification in vitro. Nucleic Acids Research 18: 21. Sacks D. L. and Kamhawi S. (2001) Molecular aspects of parasite-vector and vector–host interactions in leishmaniasis. Annual Reviews in Microbiology 55 453-483. Sabroei I., Read R. C., Whyte M. K. B., Dockrell D. H., Vogel S. N. and Dower S. K. (2003) Toll-Like Receptors in Health and Disease: Complex Questions Remain. The Journal of Immunology 171: 1630-1635. Sam-Agudu N. A., Greene J. A., Opoka R. O., Kazura J. W., Boivin M. J., Zimmerman P. A., Riedesel M. A., Bergemann T. L., Schimmenti L. A. and John C. C. (2010) TLR9 Polymorphisms are Associated with Altered IFN-γ Levels in Children with Cerebral Malaria. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygeine 82(4) 548–555. Sampath V., Mulrooney N. P., Garland J. S., He J., Patel A. L., Cohen J. D., Simpson P. M. and Hines R. N. (2013) Toll-like receptor genetic variants are associated with gram-negative infections in VLBW infants. Journal of Perinatology 10.1038. San E. D. L. (2007) Ectoparasite Categories of The Eurasian Badger (Meles Meles) In Western Switzerland. Wildlife Biological Practice 3:2 52-59. Sarkar A., Ghosh S., Pakrashi S., Roy D., Sen S. and Chetterjee M. (2012) Leishmania strains causing self-healing cutaneous leishmaniasis have greater susceptibility towards oxidative stress. Free Radicals Research 46 665–673. Savino W., Villa-Verde D. M. S., Mendes-da-Cruz D. A., Silva-Monteiro E., Perez A. R., Aoki M. D. P., Bottasso O., Guinazu N., Silva-Barbosa S. D. and Gea S. (2007) Cytokines and cell adhesion receptors in the regulation of immunity to Trypanosoma cruzi. Cytokine & Growth Factor Reviews 18 107-124. Scheppers T. L. J., Frantz A. C., Schaul M., Engel E., Breyne P., Schley L. and Roper T. J. (2007) Estimating social group size of Eurasian badgers Meles meles by genotyping remotely plucked single hairs. Journal of Wildlife Biology 13 195-207. Schmitz V., Svensjo E., Serra R. R., Teixeira M. M., and Scharfstein J. (2009) Proteolytic generation of kinins in tissues infected by Trypanosoma cruzi depends on CXC chemokine secretion by macrophages activated via Toll-like 2 receptors. Journal of Leukocyte Biology 85:6 1005-1014. Schnare M., Barton G. M., Holt A. C., Takeda K., Akira S. and Medzhitov R. (2001)Toll-like receptors control activation of adaptive immune responses. Nature Immun. 2:10 947-952. Schwartza D. A. and Cooka D. N. (2005) Polymorphisms of the Toll-Like Receptors and Human Disease. Clinical Infectious Diseases 41 403-407. Selvaraj P., Harishankar M., Singh B., Jawahar M. S. and Banurekha V. V. (2010) Toll-like receptor and TIRAP gene polymorphisms in pulmonary tuberculosis patients of South India. Tuberculosis 90: 306-310. Service M. W. (1986) Blood-sucking insects: vectors of disease. Studies in Biology 167 54-59. Sharma U. and Singh S. (2009) Immunobiology of leishmaniasis. Indian Journal of Experimental Biology 47 412-423. Shio M. T., Hassani K., Isnard A., Ralph B., Contreras I., Gomez M. A., Abu-Dayyeh I. and Olivier M. (2012) Host Cell Signalling and Leishmania Mechanisms of Evasion. Journal of Tropical Medicine. 14 pages e819512. Shryock J. A. and Houseman R.M. (2005) A comparison of faecal protein content in male and female cat fleas, Ctenocephalides felis. Florida entomologist 88 335-337. Sievers F., Wilm A., Dineen D., Gibson T. J., Karplus K., Li W., Lopez R., McWilliam H., Remmert M., Soding J., Thompson J. D. and Higgins D. G. (2011) Fast, scalable generation of high-quality protein multiple sequence alignments using Clustal Omega. Molecular Systems Biology 7 539. Simarro P. P., Diarra A., Postigo J. A. R., Franco J. R. and Jannin J. G. (2011) The Human African Trypanosomiasis Control and Surveillance Programme of the World Health Organization 2000-2009. PloS Neglected Tropical Disease 5:2. Simarro P. P., Cecchi G., Paone M., Franco J. R., Diarra A., Ruiz J. A., Fevre E. M., Courtin F., Mattioli R. and Jannin J. G. (2010) The Atlas of human African trypanosomiasis: a contribution to global mapping of neglected tropical diseases. International Journal of Health Geographics. 9:57 1-18. Sin Y. W., Dugdale H. L., Newman C., Macdonald D. W. and Burke T. (2012) Evolution of MHC class I genes in the European badger (Meles meles). Ecology and Evolution 2:7 1644–1662. Sin Y. W., Dugdale H. L., Newman C., Macdonald D. W. and Burke T. (2011) MHC class II genes in the European badger: characterization, patterns of variation, and transcription analysis. Immunogenetics s00251-011-0578-9. Sinha A., Grace C., Alston W. K., Westenfeld F. and Maguire J. H. (1999) African Trypanosomiasis in Two Travelers from the United States. Clinical Infectious Diseases 29 840-844. Skerrett S. J., Wilson C. B., Liggitt H. D. and Hajjar A. M. (2007) Redundant Toll-like receptor signaling in the pulmonary host response to Pseudomonas aeruginosa. American Journal of Physiology - Lung Cellular and Molecular Physiology 292:1 312-322. Skuce R. A., Allen A. R. and McDowell S. W. J. (2011). Bovine tuberculosis (TB): a review of cattle-to-cattle transmission, risk factors and susceptibility. 167 pages www.dardni.gov.uk Slatko B. E., Eckert R. L., Albright L. M. and Ausubel F. M. (1999) DNA Sequencing Strategies. Current Protocols in Molecular Biology 7.1 1-7 Smith A., Telfer S., Burthe S., Bennett M.and Begon M. (2005) Trypanosomes, fleas and field voles: ecological dynamics's of host of ectoparasite interaction. Parasitology 131 355-365. Söding J. (2005) Protein homology detection by HMM–HMM comparison. Bioinformatics 21:7 951-960 Souto-Padrón T. (2002) The surface charge of trypanosomatids. Anais da Academia Brasileira de Ciências 74:4 649-675. Speletas M., Merentiti V., Kostikas K., Liadaki K., Minas M., Gourgoulianis K. and Germenis A. E. (2009) Association of TLR4-T399I Polymorphism with Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease in Smokers. Clinical and Developmental Immunology 260286 6 pages. Srivastava K., Srivastava A., Kumar A. and Mittal B. (2010) Significant association between toll-like receptor gene polymorphisms and gallbladder cancer. Liver International 1478-3223. Stanko M., Miklisova D., Guy de Belloq J. and Morand S. (2002) Mammal density and patterns of ectoparasite species richness and abundance. Oecologica 131 289-295. Stappers M. H. T., Thys Y., Oosting M., Planting T. S., Ioana M., Reimnitz P., Mouton J. W., Netea M. G., Joosten L. A. B. and Gyssens I. C. (2014) TLR1, TLR2, and TLR6 Gene Polymorphisms Are Associated With Increased Susceptibility to Complicated Skin and Skin Structure Infections. Journal of Infectious Diseases. Advance Access; Author’s Copy. Statham M., Turner P. D. and O’Reilly C. (2005) Use of PCR amplification and restriction enzyme digestion of mitochondrial D-loop for identification of mustelids in Ireland. The Irish Naturalists’ Journal 28:1 1-6. Stenger S., Engele M., Bolcskei P. L., Rollinghoff M. and Wagner M. (2002) Induction of direct antimicrobial activity through mammalian toll-like receptors. Pneumologie 56:103-107. Stephens N. A., Kieft R., MacLeod A., and Hajduk S. L. (2012) Trypanosome resistance to human innate immunity: targeting Achilles’ heel. Trends in Parasitology 28: 12 539-546. Stevens J., Noyes H. and Gibson W. (1998) The Evolution of Trypanosomes Infecting Humans and Primates. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 93:5 669-676. Steverding D. (2008) The History of African trypanosomiasis. Parasites & Vectors 1:3 8 p. Stewart P. D., Bonesi L. and Macdonald D. W. (1999) Individual differences in den maintenance effort in a communally dwelling mammal: the Eurasian badger. Animal behaviour 57 153–161. Strain S. A. J., McNair J. and McDowell S. W. J. (2011) Bovine tuberculosis: a review of diagnostic tests for M. bovis infection in badgers. Bacteriology Branch Veterinary Sciences Division Agri-Food and Biosciences Institute 41 pages. Sun L., Song Y., Riaza H., Yang H., Hua G., Guoc A. and Yanga L. (2012) Polymorphisms in toll-like receptor 1 and 9 genes and their association with tuberculosis susceptibility in Chinese Holstein cattle. Veterinary Immunology and Immunopathology 147 195-201. Swingle L. D. (1911) The Transmission of Trypanosoma lewisi by Rat Fleas (Ceratophyllus Sp. and Pulex Sp)., with Short Descriptions of Three New Herpetomonads. The Journal of Infectious Diseases 8:2 125-146. Takeda K. and Akira S. (2005) Toll-like receptors in innate immunity. International Immunology 17: 1 1-14. Tarleton R. L. (2007) Immune system recognition of Trypanosoma cruzi. Current Opinion in Immunology 19 430-434. Tashima S., Kaneko Y., Anezaki T., Baba M., Yachimori S., Abramov A. V., Saveljev A. P.and Masuda R. (2011) Phylogeographic Sympatry and Isolation of the Eurasian Badgers (Meles, Mustelidae, Carnivora): Implications for an Alternative Analysis Using Maternally as well as Paternally Inherited Genes. Zoological Science 28 293-303. Taylor M. A., Coop R. L and Wall R. L. (2013) Veterinary Parasitology: 3rd Edition. Wiley-Blackwell. 900 pages. Taylor S. D., Dittmar de la Cruz K., Porter M. L. and Whiting M.F.(2005) Characterisation of the long wavelength opsin from Mecoptera and Siphonaptera: Does a flea see? Molecular biology and evolution 22 1165-1174. Taylor G. R., Ellis L. A., Robinson M. D., Charlton R. S., Mueller R. F., Knowles M. A. and Bishop D. T. (1999) How Accurate is Heterozygote Base Calling in Dye-Terminator Sequencing? Accessed online at www.dartmouth.edu/ ~staphy/protocol/ download/ Big_Dye_Sequence.doc 11/01/2014 Teixeira M. M., Gazzinelli R. T. and Silva J. S. (2002) Chemokines, inflammation and Trypanosoma cruzi infection. Trends in Parasitology 18:6. Terry R. S., Smith J. E., Duncanson P. and Hide G (2001) MGE-PCR: a novel approac

Files






Downloadable Citations