Can the Plantar Pressure and Temperature Data Trend Show the Presence of Diabetes? A Comparative Study of a Variety of Machine Learning Techniques

Gerlein, Eduardo A; Calderón, Francisco; Zequera-Díaz, Martha; Naemi, Roozbeh

Abstract

This study aimed to explore the potential of predicting diabetes by analyzing trends in plantar thermal and plantar pressure data, either individually or in combination, using various machine learning techniques. A total of twenty-six participants, comprising thirteen individuals diagnosed with diabetes and thirteen healthy individuals, walked along a 20 m path. In-shoe plantar pressure data were collected and the plantar temperature was measured both immediately before and after the walk. Each participant completed the trial three times, and the average data between the trials were calculated. The research was divided into three experiments: the first evaluated the correlations between the plantar pressure and temperature data; the second focused on predicting diabetes using each data type independently; and the third combined both data types and assessed the effect of such to enhance the predictive accuracy. For the experiments, 20 regression models and 16 classification algorithms were employed, and the performance was evaluated using a five-fold cross-validation strategy. The outcomes of the initial set of experiments indicated that the machine learning models were significant correlations between the thermal data and pressure estimates. This was consistent with the findings from the prior correlation analysis, which showed weak relationships between these two data modalities. However, a shift in focus towards predicting diabetes by aggregating the temperature and pressure data led to encouraging results, demonstrating the effectiveness of this approach in accurately predicting the presence of diabetes. The analysis revealed that, while several classifiers demonstrated reasonable metrics when using standalone variables, the integration of thermal and pressure data significantly improved the predictive accuracy. Specifically, when only plantar pressure data were used, the Logistic Regression model achieved the highest accuracy at 68.75%. Those predictions based solely on temperature data showed the Naive Bayes model as the lead with an accuracy of 87.5%. Notably, the highest accuracy of 93.75% was observed when both the temperature and pressure data were combined, with the Extra Trees Classifier performing the best. These results suggest that combining temperature and pressure data enhances the model’s predictive accuracy. This can indicate the importance of multimodal data integration and their potentials in diabetes prediction.

• Journal Article Type: Article
• Acceptance Date: Oct 25, 2024
• Online Publication Date: Nov 12, 2024
• Publication Date: Nov 12, 2024
• Deposit Date: Nov 12, 2024
• Publicly Available Date: Nov 12, 2024
• Journal: Algorithms
• Electronic ISSN: 1999-4893
• Publisher: MDPI
• Peer Reviewed: Peer Reviewed
• Volume: 17
• Issue: 11
• Pages: 519
• DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/a17110519
• Keywords: diabetes prediction; thermal analysis; plantar pressure; machine learning
• Additional Information: Received: 9 September 2024 Revised: 20 October 2024 Accepted: 25 October 2024; Academic Editor: Maryam Ravan Copyright: This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ 4.0/). algorithms Article * Correspondence: